Food choices influenced by memory

You have a choice between two foods: a chocolate bar or a piece of cake. What influences your decision? The desire to be healthy? The need for a sugar boost? According to a new study, your choice may be influenced by your memory of a particular food. A stronger memory association with an apple, for example, may encourage you to opt for the apple, even if the cake is the more attractive choice.

The study also reveals that the influence of memories in food choice is driven by an increase in communication between two brain regions - the hippocampus and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.

Study leader Dr. Sebastian Gluth and colleagues, from the University of Basel in Switzerland, publish their findings in the journal Neuron.

According to the researchers, many everyday decisions we make - such as "Where shall we go for dinner?" - are guided by information retrieved from our memories. However, the neurological processes underlying such decisions were unclear. Dr. Gluth and colleagues set out to gain a better understanding of these processes.

The team enrolled 60 young participants to their study and showed them 48 snacks - including chocolate bars, pretzels and chips - on a computer screen. Each snack was allocated to a specific location on the screen, and the participants were asked to rate each snack in order of preference.

Next, the participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), during which they were repeatedly asked to choose between two snacks. However, 30 participants were only shown the location of the snack, meaning they had to recall the snack linked to each location. The other 30 participants were shown the snacks directly on the screen. 

Participants were more likely to choose snacks they could remember

From their experiment, the researchers found that participants opted for the snacks they were better able to recall the location of. What is more, subjects chose they snacks they could recall better even if they had rated them lower in preference previously.

The food choices of the 30 participants who were shown the snacks directly on the screen during fMRI correlated with their previous preference ratings.

From the fMRI scans, the team was able to assess the brain activity of participants during their memory-based food choices. This enabled them to create a mathematical model showing how memories influence the decision-making process.

From this, they identified an increase in communication between the hippocampus - the brain region involved in memory - and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex - the decision-making brain region - as participants made their food choices.

Paracetamol

When can I take paracetamol?

You can take paracetamol for:

• mild to moderate pain, for example backache, headache, migraine, muscle strains, period pain, toothache and aches and pains due to colds and flu
• fever (high temperature)
• osteoarthritis and other painful, non-inflammatory conditions.

The dose of paracetamol for adults is:

• one or two 500mg tablets every four to six hours
• up to a maximum of 8 tablets in 24 hours.

Alternatively:one or two 665mg tablets every eight hours

• up to a maximum of six tablets in 24 hours.

It’s dangerous to take more than eight 500mg tablets in 24 hours as you may damage your liver, which may be irreversible and fatal.

Can paracetamol be given to children?

Paracetamol may be given to children from one month of age for pain and fever. Follow the dose instructions with the pack and seek medical advice if symptoms are severe or get worse.

The routine use of paracetamol before, or at the time of, immunisation is no longer recommended due to the use of better vaccines with fewer side effects. Discuss the use of paracetamol with your doctor or pharmacist if you are concerned about immunisation side effects like pain and fever.

If your child has a temperature higher than 38.5°C and this is making them uncomfortable, paracetamol can be given to help ease any discomfort. Seek medical advice if the fever does not get better.

A doctor may advise regular paracetamol for infants younger than one month old, but don’t give regular paracetamol to an infant as young as this unless advised to by a doctor.

How does paracetamol work?

Paracetamol has been in common use for over 50 years but the way it works to reduce pain and fever is not fully known. Paracetamol begins to ease pain and lower a high temperature about 30 minutes after a dose is taken. It usually lasts for about four to six hours.

When should I not take paracetamol?

Don’t take paracetamol if you:

• have an allergy to paracetamol
• are taking other paracetamol containing medicines, such as codeine combinations, migraine preparations and some cough and cold remedies, because of the risk of overdosing with paracetamol
• have already taken eight 500mg tablets within a 24 hour period.

Check with your doctor or a pharmacist before taking paracetamol if you have:

• liver problems
• kidney problems.

Can I take paracetamol with my other medicines?

Don’t take paracetamol if you are also taking other paracetamol containing medicines, such as codeine combinations, migraine preparations and some cough and cold remedies, because of the risk of overdosing on paracetamol which may damage your liver and can be fatal.

Paracetamol taken for a few days for pain or fever doesn’t interact with many other medicines.

It’s okay to take paracetamol if you are on antibiotics.

If you want to check that paracetamol is safe to take with your other medicines, ask your doctor or a pharmacist, or read the information leaflet that comes with your medicine.

Warfarin

Paracetamol is the recommended painkiller for people taking warfarin.

Long-term use of paracetamol may increase the effect of warfarin, which can increase the risk of bleeding. However, this is unlikely to happen with occasional doses of paracetamol.

Can I take paracetamol if I’m pregnant?

Paracetamol is considered the first choice of painkiller if you are pregnant as it has been taken my large numbers of pregnant women without any adverse effect on the mother or baby.

However, if you take paracetamol when pregnant, make sure you take it for the shortest possible time.

Can I take paracetamol if I’m breastfeeding?

Paracetamol is the first choice of painkiller if you are breastfeeding.

It appears in breast milk in very small amounts which are unlikely to harm your baby.

If you take paracetamol when breastfeeding, make sure you take it for the shortest possible time.

What are the possible side effects of paracetamol?

People react differently to medicines. Just because a side effect is listed it doesn’t mean you will get the side effect.

Side effects from paracetamol are rare but include:

• rash
• blood disorders
• liver and kidney damage (when taken at higher than recommended doses).

Will paracetamol affect my driving?

Paracetamol is unlikely to affect your driving.

Is it okay to drink alcohol when I’m taking paracetamol?

Drinking a small amount of alcohol is unlikely to be harmful if you are taking paracetamol.

Are there any foods I should avoid?

There are no known interactions with food.

20 Tips to Help Prevent Medical Errors

Patient Fact Sheet

Medical errors can occur anywhere in the health care system: In hospitals, clinics, surgery centers, doctors' offices, nursing homes, pharmacies, and patients' homes. Errors can involve medicines, surgery, diagnosis, equipment, or lab reports. These tips tell what you can do to get safer care.

One in seven Medicare patients in hospitals experience a medical error. But medical errors can occur anywhere in the health care system: In hospitals, clinics, surgery centers, doctors' offices, nursing homes, pharmacies, and patients' homes. Errors can involve medicines, surgery, diagnosis, equipment, or lab reports. They can happen during even the most routine tasks, such as when a hospital patient on a salt-free diet is given a high-salt meal.

Most errors result from problems created by today's complex health care system. But errors also happen when doctors* and patients have problems communicating. These tips tell what you can do to get safer care.

What You Can Do to Stay Safe

The best way you can help to prevent errors is to be an active member of your health care team. That means taking part in every decision about your health care. Research shows that patients who are more involved with their care tend to get better results.

1.     Make sure that all of your doctors know about every medicine you are taking.

This includes prescription and over-the-counter medicines and dietary supplements, such as vitamins and herbs.

2.     Bring all of your medicines and supplements to your doctor visits.

"Brown bagging" your medicines can help you and your doctor talk about them and find out if there are any problems. It can also help your doctor keep your records up to date and help you get better quality care.

3.     Make sure your doctor knows about any allergies and adverse reactions you have had to medicines.

This can help you to avoid getting a medicine that could harm you.

4.     When your doctor writes a prescription for you, make sure you can read it.

If you cannot read your doctor's handwriting, your pharmacist might not be able to either.

5.     Ask for information about your medicines in terms you can understand—both when your medicines are prescribed and when you get them:

o    What is the medicine for?

o    How am I supposed to take it and for how long?

o    What side effects are likely? What do I do if they occur?

o    Is this medicine safe to take with other medicines or dietary supplements I am taking?

o    What food, drink, or activities should I avoid while taking this medicine?

6.     When you pick up your medicine from the pharmacy, ask: Is this the medicine that my doctor prescribed?

7.     If you have any questions about the directions on your medicine labels, ask.

Medicine labels can be hard to understand. For example, ask if "four times daily" means taking a dose every 6 hours around the clock or just during regular waking hours.

8.     Ask your pharmacist for the best device to measure your liquid medicine.

For example, many people use household teaspoons, which often do not hold a true teaspoon of liquid. Special devices, like marked syringes, help people measure the right dose.

9.     Ask for written information about the side effects your medicine could cause.

If you know what might happen, you will be better prepared if it does or if something unexpected happens.

Hospital Stays

10.  If you are in a hospital, consider asking all health care workers who will touch you whether they have washed their hands.

Handwashing can prevent the spread of infections in hospitals.

11.  When you are being discharged from the hospital, ask your doctor to explain the treatment plan you will follow at home.

This includes learning about your new medicines, making sure you know when to schedule follow-up appointments, and finding out when you can get back to your regular activities.

It is important to know whether or not you should keep taking the medicines you were taking before your hospital stay. Getting clear instructions may help prevent an unexpected return trip to the hospital.

Surgery

11.  If you are having surgery, make sure that you, your doctor, and your surgeon all agree on exactly what will be done.

Having surgery at the wrong site (for example, operating on the left knee instead of the right) is rare. But even once is too often. The good news is that wrong-site surgery is 100 percent preventable. Surgeons are expected to sign their initials directly on the site to be operated on before the surgery.

12.  If you have a choice, choose a hospital where many patients have had the procedure or surgery you need.

Research shows that patients tend to have better results when they are treated in hospitals that have a great deal of experience with their condition.

Other Steps

14.  Speak up if you have questions or concerns.

You have a right to question anyone who is involved with your care.

15.  Make sure that someone, such as your primary care doctor, coordinates your care.

This is especially important if you have many health problems or are in the hospital.

16.  Make sure that all your doctors have your important health information.

Do not assume that everyone has all the information they need.

17.  Ask a family member or friend to go to appointments with you.

Even if you do not need help now, you might need it later.

18.  Know that "more" is not always better.

It is a good idea to find out why a test or treatment is needed and how it can help you. You could be better off without it.

19.  If you have a test, do not assume that no news is good news.

Ask how and when you will get the results.

20.  Learn about your condition and treatments by asking your doctor and nurse and by using other reliable sources.

For example, treatment options based on the latest scientific evidence are available from the Effective Health Care Web site. Ask your doctor if your treatment is based on the latest evidence.

Easy way to REMEMBER 12 Cranial Nerves (examination and mnemonic)

The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that can be seen on the ventral (bottom) surface of the brain. Some of these nerves bring information from the sense organs to the brain; other cranial nerves control muscles; other cranial nerves are connected to glands or internal organs such as the heart and lungs. 

Can't remember the names of the cranial nerves? 

Here is a handy-dandy mnemonic for you:

• On Old Olympus Towering Top A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some Hops.

The bold letters stand for:

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, hypoglossal.

Test Your Cranial Nerves

Now that you know the names and functions of the cranial nerves, let's test them. These tests will help you understand how the cranial nerves work. These tests are not meant to be a "clinical examination" of the cranial nerves.

You will need to get a partner to help...both of you can serve as the experimenter (tester) and the subject. Record your observations of what your partner does and says.

Olfactory Nerve (I)

Gather some items with distinctive smells (for example, cloves, lemon, chocolate or coffee). Have your partner smell the items one at a time with each nostril. Have your partner record what the item is and the strength of the odor. Now you be the one who smells the items...have your partner use different smells for you.

Optic Nerve (II)

Make an eye chart (a "Snellen Chart") like the one on the right. It doesn't have to be perfect. Have your partner try to read the lines at various distances away from the chart.

Oculomotor Nerve (III), Trochlear Nerve (IV) and Abducens Nerve (VI)

These three nerves control eye movement and pupil diameter. Hold up a finger in front of your partner. Tell your partner to hold his or her head still and to follow your finger, then move your finger up and down, right and left. Do your partner's eyes follow your fingers?

Check the pupillary response (oculomotor nerve): look at the diameter of your partner's eyes in dim light and also in bright light. Check for differences in the sizes of the right and left pupils.

Trigeminal Nerve (V)

The trigeminal nerve has both sensory and motor functions. To test the motor part of the nerve, tell your partner to close his or her jaws as if he or she was biting down on a piece of gum.

To test the sensory part of the trigeminal nerve, lightly touch various parts of your partner's face with piece of cotton or a blunt object. Be careful not to touch your partner's eyes. Although much of the mouth and teeth are innervated by the trigeminal nerve, don't put anything into your subject's mouth.

Facial Nerve (VII)

The motor part of the facial nerve can be tested by asking your partner to smile or frown or make funny faces. The sensory part of the facial nerve is responsible for taste on the front part of the tongue. You could try a few drops of sweet or salty water on this part of the tongue and see if your partner can taste it.

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)

Although the vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for hearing and balance, we will only test the hearing portion of the nerve here. Have your partner close his or her eyes and determine the distance at which he or she can hear the ticking of a clock or stopwatch.

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) and Vagus Nerve (X)

Have your partner drink some water and observe the swallowing reflex. Also the glossopharyngeal nerve is responsible for taste on the back part of the tongue. You could try a few drops of salty (or sugar) water on this part of the tongue and see if your partner can taste it.

Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI)

To test the strength of the muscles used in head movement, put you hands on the sides of your partner's head. Tell your partner to move his or her head from side to side. Apply only light pressure when the head is moved.

Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)

Have your partner stick out his or her tongue and move it side to side.

Drugs Contraindicated in Pregnancy

Drugs are used in over half of all pregnancies and prevalence of use is increasing. The most commonly used drugs include antiemetics, antacids, antihistamines, analgesics, antimicrobials, diuretics, hypnotics, tranquilizers, and social and illicit drugs. Despite this trend, evidence-based guidelines for drug use during pregnancy are still lacking.

The FDA classifies drugs into 5 categories of safety for use during pregnancy (see FDA Categories of Drug Safety During Pregnancy). However, few well-controlled studies of therapeutic drugs have been conducted in pregnant women. Most information about drug safety during pregnancy is derived from animal studies and uncontrolled studies in people (eg, postmarketing reports). During pregnancy, drugs are often required to treat certain disorders. Despite widespread concern about drug safety, exposure to therapeutic drugs accounts for only 2 to 3% of all fetal congenital malformations; most malformations result from genetic, environmental, or unknown causes.

MEDICATIONS CONTRAINDICATED IN PREGNANCY

Link: Here

¿Miedo a las agujas? Nuevo dispositivo que permitirá extraer sangre sin ellas y sin dolor

Lo que muchos profesionales y pacientes esperábamos, ahora hay un nuevo dispositivo que puede extraer sangre sin agujas.

La Universidad de Wisconsin-Madison a través de un comunicado en su portal web dio a conocer que el extractor desechable que tiene el tamaño de una pelota de ping pong.

Consiste en un pequeño dispositivo que es capaz de extraer pequeñas cantidades de sangre mediante un efecto de presión en la piel sin la necesidad cortar o introducirse en el cuerpo. En aproximadamente 2 minutos este aparato completa su función, así que, para los que odiaban las agujas, éste es el invento revolucionario que les ahorrará malas experiencias. 

10 best free apps for Medical Students

There are many apps for medical students that will make medical life easier than before. With the help of a handheld device, you can access tons of information within seconds. To help you pick iPad apps helpful for medical students, we’ve put together the 10 best medical apps based on recent recommendations and reviews:

1. Medscape

Medscape aims to combine all other medical apps into one power-packed app. Their iPad app contains a Drug Reference section, Interaction Checker, Pill ID tool, Disease and Condition reference, Step-By-Step Procedural Articles, Medical Calculator, Medical News and CMEs. Medscape updates their app with new content regularly.

With its awesome features, it is great to know that Medscape is free to download. All you need to access Medscape is to register an account and log-in to the app. Unlike other medical apps, Medscape’s content can be accessed even offline and its user interface is optimized for the iPad’s large screen.

2. Calculate by QxMD

QxMD’s Medical Calculator app contains more than 150 varieties of different medical specialty calculators along with decision support tools. The app’s search function lets you look for calculators by specialty. The app can assist you in a variety of medical calculations like dosages, laboratory values, and prognosis percentage to name a few.

In iPad, the app presents a double-panel interface for easy navigation. However, it cannot be flipped into vertical viewing mode as the app is permanently set in horizontal viewing interface.